Augustine

Faith before reason

He maintained a materialistic view of things and on this account doubted the existence of immaterial substances and the immortality of the soul.

I am confident that among the Platonists I shall find what is not opposed to the teachings of our religion.

We cannot properly philosophize until our human wills are transformed, that clear thinking is possible only under the influence of God’s grace.

“For we are,” says Augustine, “ and we know we are, and we love our being and our knowledge of it…. These truths stand without fear in the face of the arguments of the Academics.”

The soul cannot find its peace among the bodily pleasures or sensation.

The world of things was full of change and impermanence.

Immutable truth must have its source in God.

Augustine sees God as the source of all being insofar as things possess any being at all.

God is “ I Am That I Am.”

Justice is “the habit of the soul which imparts to every person the dignity due him….Its origin proceeds from nature…and this notion of justice…is not the product of personal opinion, but something implanted by a certain innate power.”

The primary relationship in justice is between a person and God

否定人的美感和艺术享受

以上帝的名义建立

强调人神相对立 同时又有统一性

人在自己的精神上 体会到人的神性

信仰、希望、爱

奥古斯丁 美的忏悔

圣父、圣子、圣灵三位一体

万物的总体在上帝眼中是和谐

面向天主

上帝的至善至美通过信仰去领会

虔诚地爱

对世俗美的否定  禁欲主义

美是纯精神的属性

象征

托马斯.阿奎那

一眼见到使人愉快

感观喜欢比例适当的东西

和谐的结构

美存在于万物的多种多样性

注重感观、立足感观

Classical Philosophy after Aristotle

Epicureanism

Most importantly, God is not the source or the creator of anything but is himself the result of a purposeless and random event.

Liberation from the fear of God and of death sets the stage for a way of life completely under a person’s own control.

Stoicism

The Stoics sought happiness through wisdom, a wisdom by which to control what lay within human ability and to accept with dignified resignation what had to be.

Do not demand that events should happen as you wish; but wish them to happen as they do happen, and you will go on well.

We cannot control all events, but we can control our attitude toward what happens. It is useless to fear future events, for they will happen in any case. But it is possible by an act of will to control our fear. We should not, therefore, fear events---in a real sense we have “nothing to fear but fear itself”.

Skepiticism

We cannot be certain that our knowledge of the nature of things is true or not true.

The outcome of this skeptical attitude toward our knowledge of the nature of things and our knowledge of moral truth is that we have a right to doubt the validity of such knowledge.

Morality possible without intellectual certainty

Plotinus

God as the One

The metaphor of emanation

Salvation

贺拉斯

亚里士多德的追随者

情感

想像比模仿更灵巧

心眼

朗吉弩斯

崇高

普罗提诺

理念论和神秘主义的扩展

太一高于理念世界

否定论神学（只能说神不是什么）

理念的特点是整一性（纯粹的统一性）

美是内在于人的灵魂

外部世界的美提醒人的内心的灵魂

回忆太一（人的精神家园）

艺术和美本质上不可分

艺术的最本质作用表现人心中的美

模仿心灵------模仿理念

艺术：回到万事万物的来源---理念世界

高于自然

模仿---表现---模仿

模仿太一创作的理念世界

一切艺术都是为了创造美

人所看到的美都是艺术创作

太一是一切艺术所根据的蓝本

太一是存在

丑是非存在 某种缺乏

太一是真善美的统一

主体性

美是主客体精神的统一

最终统一于客观精神

最高太一的美

美和艺术的再次分裂

宗教是人的本质的异化

Once, a king gave a feast for the loveliest princesses in the realm. Now, a soldier who was standing guard saw the king’s daughter go by. She was most beautiful of all and he instantly fell in love. But what is a simple soldier next to the daughter of a king? Well, at last he succeeded in meeting her and he told her he could no longer live without her. The princess was so taken by the depth of his feeling that she said to the soldier: “If you can wait for 100 days and 100 nights under my balcony. At end of it, I shall be yours.” With that, the soldier went and waited one day, two days, then ten, then twenty. Each evening the princess looked out and he never moved. In rain, in wind, in snow, he was always there. Bird shat on his head. Bees stung him. But he didn’t budge. At the end of 90 days he had become all dry, all white. Tears stream from his eye. He couldn’t hold them back. He didn’t even have the strength to sleep. And all that time, the princess watched him. At long last, it was the 99th night and the soldier stood up, took his chair and left.
　　
　　In one more night, the princess would have been his. But she also could not possibly have kept her promise. And it would have been terrible. He would have died. This way, however, at least for 99 days, he was living under the illusion that she was there, waiting for him.

 

Ps: Pursuit is more beautiful than possessing.

艺术的本体论

亚里士多德  古典主义美学

万物是神的艺术品

人是神的最优秀的作品

人的艺术是对神的艺术的模仿，带有神的艺术特点

共同特点：有机的整体、多样的和谐

美是有机的统一

一切美都是有目的的创造物

一切自然美必然是艺术美

和谐 充满矛盾和张力的有机统一

内在的目的性（自己是自己的目的）-----有机的合目的性

集中对心情的模仿

音乐最富有模仿性的艺术

诗比历史更富有哲学性

道德  净化（Katharsis）

音乐： 教育、净化  精神的享受

幸福是功利的善

艺术具有道德教化作用

第四节 客观美学的衰落

亚里士多德 顶峰

古希腊美学的集大成者

古典后期（古典希腊后期和罗马时代）

世俗化时代

缺乏古希腊时代的彼岸的追求

神是古希腊艺术的主题

罗马的艺术是世俗的

对大自然的描绘  田园牧歌

信仰的丧失的时代

沉溺于物质的享受

堕落、腐败的时代

人和神 物质和精神的分裂

Aristotle

Before we can logically demonstrate or prove something, we must have a clear starting point for our reasoning process.

First philosophy, or what we now call metaphysics, which goes beyond the subject matter of the other sciences and is concerned with the knowledge of the true reality.

What is such-and-such a thing like and why?

What does it mean to be anything whatsoever?

We know a thing better when we know what it is than when we know the color, size, or posture it has.

What, in short, makes a substance a substance; is it matter as a substratum or is it form?

Change occurs always in and to something that is already a combination of form and matter and that is on its way to becoming something new or different.

All things, said Aristotle, are involved in processes of change. Each thing possesses a power to become what its form has set as its end. There is in all things a dynamic power of striving toward their “end”.

Since change is a kind of motion, Aristotle saw the visible world as one composed of things in motion. But motion, a type of change, involves potentiality. Things are potentially in motion but must be moved by something that is actually in motion.

A body, then, that is actually alive has its life from the source of actuality, namely form. The soul, then, is the form of an organized body.

The soul is the definitive form of the body.

Aristotle’s theory of mortality centers around his belief that people, as everything else in nature, have a distinctive end to achieve and a function to fulfill. He begins his Nicomachean Ethics by saying that “Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some good.”

The good person, according to Aristotle, is the person who is fulfilling his or her function as a human being.

If the function of people is an activity of soul which follows or implies a rational principle…then the human good turns out to be activity of soul in accordance with virtue.

Since not only is reason the best thing in us, but the objects of reason are the best of knowable objects. Moreover, contemplation is most continuous, since we can contemplate truth more continuously than we can do anything. Finally, we think happiness has pleasure mingled with it, but the activity of philosophical wisdom is admittedly the pleasantest of virtuous activities.

A state exists for the sake of a good life,  and not for the sake of life only.

Political society exists for the sake of noble actions, and not mere companionship.

一、美在合适

最高的美-------------神的目的   苏格拉底

自然的模仿-------------精神的模仿论（神）

精神的超越性

灵感说

每个人都有一个守护神

哲学家的灵异是自觉的

诗人的灵感是迷狂

二、美是理念

柏拉图  理念论 Eidos

感性事物分有理念而存在

心灵的尽善尽美

自然和心灵的和谐一致的美

理智的迷狂（具有铺垫）

一切学习只不过是回忆而已

代神说话  为神立言---------诗人

宗教的迷狂--------教徒

诗的迷狂-----------诗人

理智的迷狂--------哲学家

一味地推崇酒神精神导致剧场精神

阿波罗理智精神规制

三、亚里士多德

美学--------艺术哲学

追问事物的原因

形式 质料

目的  动力因

质料和形式的关系是对立的

上帝是纯形式

形式决定质料

第一节    客观美学的创立  对美的本质的探讨

一、美在和谐

1.       毕达哥拉斯

从感性世界进入理性

一切皆数

理性的灵魂（nous）-----意识

灵魂不灭    轮回

美是数的和谐

逻辑推断补足经验观察之不足

通过理性推断 建立对世界的认识体系

猜想与反驳

美是客观事物的属性  客观美学

审美活动归结为理性分析

美感：内部世界的和谐与外部世界的和谐产生共鸣

心灵的和谐

同构   心灵模仿

2.       赫拉克利特

美是对立面的和谐

相反者相承  对立造成和谐美

看不见的和谐比看得见的和谐更好

现实世界的美是相对的

艺术的和谐  模仿自然  强调自然

3.       德谟克利特

一切都是原子

人的灵魂是光滑的  精致的

美是灵魂和肉体、小宇宙和大宇宙相结合的产物

内心的美感   主观

模仿

主客二分的  外在的

心的和谐   效用

人和事物有目的的关系

二、美在合适

苏格拉底

古希腊哲学从自然哲学进入到人文哲学

认识你自己

知识就是美德

伦理道德意识上的神

目的论宇宙观

直立行走、运用双手、语言--------人

人是神最得意的作品

人的理智使人最接近神

合适--------客观事物和人的目的之间的和谐

主观的目的和用途纳入到客观范畴

人以神为目的--------相对的合适

神的目的----------绝对的合适  最高的合目的性

人的精神  人的理性  可以逐渐接近神（那个绝对的美）

精神的客观美学

第一章    古希腊罗马美学

第一节    古希腊罗马美学的文化土壤

客观研究对象      分析其本质   加以定义

是什么-------------怎么样

先下定义   确定概念   再做分析

古希腊人：陆地流浪人--------------海上流浪人

注重超验的普遍原则

追求超验的精神安慰

个体独立意识  自由  理性

希腊神话： 弑父   弑母

法律关系战胜血缘关系，成为社会关系的纽带

契约保证社会的有序运行

对事物的科学知识   达成意见一致的标准

科学精神具有浓厚的人文色彩

希腊古典艺术的核心------雕刻  人体雕刻

人的自然形象      肉体

The great Plato

There are unchanging and universal truths, which human reason is capable of grasping.

Most of us dwell in the darkness of the cave. People have oriented their thoughts around the blurred world of shadows. It is the function of education to lead people out of the cave into the world of light.

Education, then, is a matter of conversion---a complete turning around from the world of appearance to the world of reality.

We could discover the real objects behind all the multitude of shadows, and thereby attain true knowledge.

Sophists could make either side of an argument seem as good as the other.

Believing, even if it is based upon seeing, is still in the stage of opinion.

If we could view all things as they really are, we should discover that all things are related or connected.

In a nutshell, the Forms are those changeless, eternal, and nonmaterial essences or patterns of which the actual visible objects we see are only poor copies.

Forms are eternal patterns of which the objects that we see are only copies.

Knowledge does not involve simply the passing facts and appearances---that is, the realm of becoming. Knowledge seeks what truly is: its concern is with Being. What really is, what has Being, is the essential nature of things.

The Form of the Good is the universal author of all things beautiful and right, parent of light and of the lord of light in this world, and the source of truth and reason tin the other.

What is the relation of forms to things? First, the form is the cause of the essence of a thing. Next, a thing may be said to participate in a form. And, finally, a thing may be said to imitate or copy a form.

Every significant statement involves the use of some Forms and that knowledge consists of understanding the relations of the appropriate Forms to each other.

How do we know the forms? First there is recollection. Second, people arrive at the knowledge of Forms through the activity of dialectic, which is the power of abstracting the essence of things and discovering the relations of all divisions of knowledge to each other. And third, there is the power of desire, love(eros), which leads people step by step, as Plato described in the Symposium, from the beautiful object to the beautiful thought and then to the very essence of beauty itself.

In the Republic, Plato describes the soul as having three parts, reason, spirit, and appetite.

It is the function of the rational part of the soul to seek the true goal of human life, and it does this by evaluating things according to their true nature. The passions or appetites might lead us into a world of fantasy and deceive us into believing that certain kinds of pleasures will bring us happiness. It is, then, the unique role of reason to penetrate the world of fantasy and to discover the true world and thereby direct the passions to objects of love that are capable of producing true pleasure and true happiness. When we confuse appearance with reality, we become unhappy and experience a general disorder of the human soul. This confusion occurs chiefly when our passions override our reason. This is why Plato argued, as Socrates had before him, that moral evil is the result of ignorance. There can be order between the charioteer and the horses only if the charioteer is in control. Similarly, our human souls can achieve order and peace only if our rational part is in control of our spirit and appetites.

Morality consists in the recovery of our lost inner harmony.

Knowledge is virtue means that false knowledge must be replaced with an accurate appraisal of things or acts and their values.

Throughout his discussions of morality, Plato viewed the good life as the life of inner harmony, of well-being, and of happiness.

Living, said Plato, is likewise an art, and the soul’s unique function is the art of living.

Justice, then, is the general virtue, which reflects a person’s attainment of well-being and inner harmony, which, in turn, is achieved only when every part of the soul is fulfilling its proper function.

Philosopher-king is one whose education has led him up step by step through the ascending degrees of knowledge of the Divided Line until at last he has a knowledge of the Good, that synoptic vision of the interrelation of all truths to each other.

Most important of all, the ruler must come as close as possible to a knowledge of the Good, for the well-being of the state depends upon the ruler’s knowledge and character.

Plato’s ideal state was aristocracy, in which the rational element embodied in the philosopher-king was supreme and where people’s reason controlled their appetites.

Plato’s thought about the world is that, though it is full of change and imperfection, it nevertheless exhibits order and purpose. The world is a soul in which things as we know them are arranged.